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The use of the direct simulation Monte Carlo(DSMC) method has drastically increased over the years,with applications ranging from micro-electro-mechanical systems(MEMS) to high-energy hypersonic flows over entire vehicles.Simplistic models developed in the late 1970s to early 1980s,such as the variable hard sphere(VHS) and variable soft sphere(VSS) models,are still commonly found in DSMC codes today.Higher-fidelity models are available for elastic collision modeling,but they have seen limited use in DSMC owing to the added complexity and computational requirements.