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Abstract:Grammar-Translation Method is a far-reaching method in the English language teaching history. This paper introduces the original motivation of Grammar-Translation Method and its development both abroad and at home. From the critical perspective,the author states how to apply this method in today's English language teaching.
Key Words:Grammar-Translation Method,Application,English Language Teaching
1. Background knowledge and Existence of Grammar-Translation Method
Grammar-translation Method has almost the longest history among all teaching methods. According to the record of the language teaching history of English,the teaching of modern languages begins at the end of Middle Ages (A.P.R.Howatt,1984). The appearance of Grammar-translation Method cannot be separated from historical background at that time and the purpose that people learn foreign languages.
1.1 The budding of the G-T Method
About five hundred years ago,Latin,thought to promote intellectuality through "mental gymnastics",was the dominant language of education,commerce,religion,and government in the western world. Latin was taught by means of what has been called the Classical Method:focus on grammatical rules,memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations of tests,doing written exercises (Brown,H.Douglas,1994). In the sixteenth century,Latin gradually ceased to be a normal vehicle for communication as the result of political changes in Europe. It was replaced by the vernacular language such as French,Italian,and English. As the status of Latin diminished,the study of Latin grammar became an end in itself.
In the 19th century,based on the standard way of studying Latin grammar,the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar-translation Method. GTM began in Germany,or more accurately,Prussia,at the end of the 18th century and established an almost impregnable position as the favored methodology of the Prussia Gymnasien after their expansion in the early years of the 19th century. The origins of the method do not lie in an attempt to teach languages by grammar and translation,these were taken for granted anyway. The original motivation was reformist,the traditional scholastic approach among individual learners in the eighteenth century had been to acquire learners a reading knowledge of foreign languages by studying a grammar and applying this knowledge to the interpretation of texts with the use of a dictionary. Most of them were highly educated men and women who were trained in classical grammar and knew how to apply the familiar categories to new languages. However scholastic methods of this kind were not well suited to the capabilities of younger school pupils and,moreover,they were self-study methods which were inappropriate for group teaching in classroom.
The GTM was an attempt to adapt these traditions to the circumstances and requirements of schools. Its principal aim was to make language learning easier. The central feature was the replacement of traditional tests by exemplary sentences. As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Karl Plotz,H.S. Ollendorf) Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship,the object of which,according to one of its less charitable critics,was "to know everything about something rather than the thing itself"(W.H.D Rouse,1969).
1.2 Early application of the G-T Method
The earliest grammar-translation course for the teaching of English was written in 1793 by Johann Christian Fick (1763-1821) and published in Erlangen in south Germany. It was modeled on an earlier word for the teaching of French by the originator-Johann Valentin Meidinger (1756—1822). It contains exercises of various kinds,typically sentences for translation into and out of the foreign language,which were other novel features of the Grammar-Translation Method.
The G-T sentences had a second aim besides affording opportunities for practice work. They exemplified the grammar in a more concentrated and clearer way than tests do. The G-T textbooks were graded,though not in the modern sense exactly,and presented new grammar points one by one in an organized sequence. Each step needed appropriate examples and specially devised sentences were simpler than samples fromreputable authors' that contained extra difficulties for the pupils.
1.3 Development of G-T Method
At its best,as Howatt(1984) points out,it was not necessarily the horror that its critics depicted it as. The method was praised as active,simple,and effective. A typical textbook in the mid-19th century consisted of chapters or lessons organized around grammar points. Each grammar point was listed,with rules on its use explained,and illustrated by sample sentences. GTM dominated European and foreign language teaching form the 1840s to the 1940s,and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.
The budding of the GTM ,early application of the GTM and development of the GTM told us that traditionalism has undergone a very long history. In spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made,the Grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning,the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learning.
2. The great significance of the Grammar-Translation Method
Grammar-Translation Method is so far-reaching method that scholars do many researches on it both abroad and at home. These conducted researches both abroad and at home is very important due to they give rise to the significance of GTM,and left far-reaching effects in ELT.
In abroad,(1) F.Smith published one thesis in TESOL in 1980. In this thesis,he discussed his experiment conducted in one college in penn State. In this experiment two different teaching methods were adopted to teach the foreign students English,that is,G-T was used in one class and Audio-Lingual Method in the other. After one year,conclusion was drawn that:The students in the class of G-T show more abilities of accuracy in grammar,in reading and translation than the second class. There are no apparent difference in listening and speaking abilities between these two classes. The value of G-T is revealed in this experiment. (2) Walte Kasmer in his paper "The Role of Translation in the EFL / ESL Classroom"(1999) indicates "Translation should be used to foster and take advantage of a student's natural ability to assimilate L2 information via their L1 processing. Through the usage of bilingual immersion,co-teaching,bilingual text usage,or a combination of approaches such as Weschler'sFunctional-Translation Method',a teacher can also increase a student's confidence and security levels". (3) Clindy Cunningham in the paper "Translation in the Classroom- a Useful Tool for SLA"(2000) indicates "while there may indeed be some negative effects form using translation,there is a place in he learning environment for translation. Translation can contribute to the students' acquisition of the target language,at all levels". (4) Austin J Damiani,Professor Babs in his paper "The Grammar-Translation Method of Language Teaching" (2003) states "As a teacher,I liked using the grammar-translation method because I could assume the intelligence of my students;I could talk to them like the intelligent people that they are,and we could talk about the grammar and vocabulary that I was teaching. In another method,I would have had to use simple language and familiar phrases to communicate in the target language,and even then,I could not be sure that my students knew and understood what it was that they were saying."
In China,(1) Han Mingdai's paper "A Word for Grammar-Translation Method"(1994) stresses the great importance of this method especially for the adult English learners although it was not popular now. (2) Zhang Zhiqing,a professor in Shanxi Normal University,stresses that GTM is applicable to the English learners in our country in "The Applicability of Grammar-Translation method in English-Teaching in China" (2000). (3) Xiao Hui ,a doctor in Nanjing University,in his book "A Critique of the Grammar-Translation Method in Foreign Language Teaching"(2004),disagrees with the elimination of the learners' mother tongue from the second language classroom. He indicates translation is an alternative that can contribute to the successful realization of teaching goals and should be used effectively to promote second language learning.
These researches,to some extent,applied GTM from positive attitude and emphases the importance of the L1 and accuracy of the grammar. These features continue to be widely used in some parts of the world today and also can be found in today's English teaching classroom in China. But,to better understanding the GTM,we should move to its disadvantages.
3. The critical views about Grammar-Translation Method
Drawbacks to the Grammar-Translation Method are obvious. Virtually no class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences,and even less time is spent on oral practice (whether productive or reproductive). And the use of the first language wastes too much valuable class time that would be better spent on the target language. This is sometimes referred to as the time on task argument. What's more,there is often little contextualization of the grammar-although this of course depends upon the passages chosen and the teacher's own skills. Moreover,culture,when discussed,is communicated through means of reading passages,but there is little direct confrontation with foreign elements. In addition,the type of error correction that this method requires can actually be harmful to the students' learning processes since students are put in a defensive learning environment where right answers are expected. Finally,it interposes an intermediate process between the concept and the way it is expressed in the foreign language,thus hindering the development of the ability to think directly in the mew language. This intermediate process with its occasional misapplication of L1 rules to the L2,is sometimes referred to as interference. Therefore,it is quite natural that there have been various criticisms of the use of GTM for the teaching of modern languages,and particularly English.
4. The practical view on the Grammar-Translation Method
Since the significance and disadvantages introduced,we have a fundamental understanding about the GTM. Now,the question is how to creatively use the GTM since it is not the "perfect method". Some suggestions are given here to modify and develop this method so as to offset the weak points and make the best use of its benefits and help students learn a second language more thoughtfully and effectively.
4.1A contextual approach to teach Grammar
The concept of contextualization should be more emphasized in grammar teaching. In a typical GT text,the grammar rules are presented with their translation equivalents,and translation exercises are prescribed. But instead of teaching grammar traditionally and drilling grammar patterns,teachers need to relate teaching grammar and pattern drills to meaning and use. In other words,language structure practice should be used in contexts that involve some basic principles of appropriateness. Grammar should be taught in a context,not rules and structures alone. Learners should be taught how to form correct structures and also their functions,as the first step towards meaningful communication.
Besides,grammar teaching needs to be integrated into the teaching of speaking,listening,writing,and reading skills. In other words,grammar should be seen as facilitating communication in all modes,no as an isolated area of study exemplified by "the grammar lesson".
Finally,teachers should not expect any immediate and direct result from grammar teaching. Some grammar features may be easy,and others not. Some learners find a rule easy,but others don't:learners differ in their language competence.
4.2Creative use of pedagogical translation
The use of GT between the L1 and SL has a high-requirement in systematic background knowledge about teachers.By means of translation,the teacher can illustrate how the same message is conveyed in two separate languages and whether different linguistic expressions are used. Firstly,teachers need to have a clear terminal objective when using translation as a teaching strategy. They have to carry out a contrastive analysis of the semantic aspects of the two languages. Another creation to the use of this method is back translation. In back translation,the L2 article is firstly translated into the L1 in small groups. And then exchange the L1 translations and retranslate them into the L2,after which both the original and the translated L2 versions are compared and discussed. The following questions are then considered:Are any important ideas lost? Does this loss affect the meaning of the text? Are words changed in the translation,and are these changes important? Do any of the sentence structure alterations affect the meaning and interpretation of the text? Are any changes to the cohesion and coherence important to the meaning? After this discussion,students decide whether the errors occurred in the L2 to L1 translation or in the reverse,and then they work together to make more appropriate changes. Through this process,the students can enhance their comprehension and mastery of both languages,and realize the excellence of the original article convincingly.
5. Summary
Most language teachers realize that there is no such thing as "the best teaching method," and therefore,few professionals in the field today persist in using only one approach or one method. On the contrary,teachers should try to be as flexible as possible in choosing the teaching techniques that will enable those most effectively to achieve their main goal to give students both grammatical accuracy and communicative proficiency in a foreign language. Translation as an alternative which can contribute to the realization of teaching goals can be used effectively to promote second language learning.
References:
[1]Austin J. D. (2003). The Grammar-Translation Method of Language Teaching (pp.131-133). Oxford :Oxford University Press.
[2]Brown,H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. NJ:Prentice Hall Regents.
[3]Clindy,C. (2000). Translation in the Classroom- a Useful Tool for SLA. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[4]Howatt,A. P. R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[5]Ollendorff,H. G. (1848). First adaptation of the New Method to teach English. Intended for French speakers. Paris.
[6]Rouse,W. H. D. (1969). Lucretius on the nature of things. ISBN.
[7]Smith,F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[8]Walte,K. (1999). The Role of Translation in the EFL / ESL Classroom. London:Pitman.
[9]韩明达. (1994).语法-翻译法的研究.外语教学与研究,38(3),11-19.
[10]张志清. (2000).语法-翻译法在中国英语教学中的可行性研究.现代外语,28(4),33-34.
[11]肖辉.(2004).语法翻译教学法研究.复旦大学出版社.
Key Words:Grammar-Translation Method,Application,English Language Teaching
1. Background knowledge and Existence of Grammar-Translation Method
Grammar-translation Method has almost the longest history among all teaching methods. According to the record of the language teaching history of English,the teaching of modern languages begins at the end of Middle Ages (A.P.R.Howatt,1984). The appearance of Grammar-translation Method cannot be separated from historical background at that time and the purpose that people learn foreign languages.
1.1 The budding of the G-T Method
About five hundred years ago,Latin,thought to promote intellectuality through "mental gymnastics",was the dominant language of education,commerce,religion,and government in the western world. Latin was taught by means of what has been called the Classical Method:focus on grammatical rules,memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations of tests,doing written exercises (Brown,H.Douglas,1994). In the sixteenth century,Latin gradually ceased to be a normal vehicle for communication as the result of political changes in Europe. It was replaced by the vernacular language such as French,Italian,and English. As the status of Latin diminished,the study of Latin grammar became an end in itself.
In the 19th century,based on the standard way of studying Latin grammar,the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar-translation Method. GTM began in Germany,or more accurately,Prussia,at the end of the 18th century and established an almost impregnable position as the favored methodology of the Prussia Gymnasien after their expansion in the early years of the 19th century. The origins of the method do not lie in an attempt to teach languages by grammar and translation,these were taken for granted anyway. The original motivation was reformist,the traditional scholastic approach among individual learners in the eighteenth century had been to acquire learners a reading knowledge of foreign languages by studying a grammar and applying this knowledge to the interpretation of texts with the use of a dictionary. Most of them were highly educated men and women who were trained in classical grammar and knew how to apply the familiar categories to new languages. However scholastic methods of this kind were not well suited to the capabilities of younger school pupils and,moreover,they were self-study methods which were inappropriate for group teaching in classroom.
The GTM was an attempt to adapt these traditions to the circumstances and requirements of schools. Its principal aim was to make language learning easier. The central feature was the replacement of traditional tests by exemplary sentences. As the names of some of its leading exponents suggest (Karl Plotz,H.S. Ollendorf) Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship,the object of which,according to one of its less charitable critics,was "to know everything about something rather than the thing itself"(W.H.D Rouse,1969).
1.2 Early application of the G-T Method
The earliest grammar-translation course for the teaching of English was written in 1793 by Johann Christian Fick (1763-1821) and published in Erlangen in south Germany. It was modeled on an earlier word for the teaching of French by the originator-Johann Valentin Meidinger (1756—1822). It contains exercises of various kinds,typically sentences for translation into and out of the foreign language,which were other novel features of the Grammar-Translation Method.
The G-T sentences had a second aim besides affording opportunities for practice work. They exemplified the grammar in a more concentrated and clearer way than tests do. The G-T textbooks were graded,though not in the modern sense exactly,and presented new grammar points one by one in an organized sequence. Each step needed appropriate examples and specially devised sentences were simpler than samples fromreputable authors' that contained extra difficulties for the pupils.
1.3 Development of G-T Method
At its best,as Howatt(1984) points out,it was not necessarily the horror that its critics depicted it as. The method was praised as active,simple,and effective. A typical textbook in the mid-19th century consisted of chapters or lessons organized around grammar points. Each grammar point was listed,with rules on its use explained,and illustrated by sample sentences. GTM dominated European and foreign language teaching form the 1840s to the 1940s,and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.
The budding of the GTM ,early application of the GTM and development of the GTM told us that traditionalism has undergone a very long history. In spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made,the Grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning,the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learning.
2. The great significance of the Grammar-Translation Method
Grammar-Translation Method is so far-reaching method that scholars do many researches on it both abroad and at home. These conducted researches both abroad and at home is very important due to they give rise to the significance of GTM,and left far-reaching effects in ELT.
In abroad,(1) F.Smith published one thesis in TESOL in 1980. In this thesis,he discussed his experiment conducted in one college in penn State. In this experiment two different teaching methods were adopted to teach the foreign students English,that is,G-T was used in one class and Audio-Lingual Method in the other. After one year,conclusion was drawn that:The students in the class of G-T show more abilities of accuracy in grammar,in reading and translation than the second class. There are no apparent difference in listening and speaking abilities between these two classes. The value of G-T is revealed in this experiment. (2) Walte Kasmer in his paper "The Role of Translation in the EFL / ESL Classroom"(1999) indicates "Translation should be used to foster and take advantage of a student's natural ability to assimilate L2 information via their L1 processing. Through the usage of bilingual immersion,co-teaching,bilingual text usage,or a combination of approaches such as Weschler'sFunctional-Translation Method',a teacher can also increase a student's confidence and security levels". (3) Clindy Cunningham in the paper "Translation in the Classroom- a Useful Tool for SLA"(2000) indicates "while there may indeed be some negative effects form using translation,there is a place in he learning environment for translation. Translation can contribute to the students' acquisition of the target language,at all levels". (4) Austin J Damiani,Professor Babs in his paper "The Grammar-Translation Method of Language Teaching" (2003) states "As a teacher,I liked using the grammar-translation method because I could assume the intelligence of my students;I could talk to them like the intelligent people that they are,and we could talk about the grammar and vocabulary that I was teaching. In another method,I would have had to use simple language and familiar phrases to communicate in the target language,and even then,I could not be sure that my students knew and understood what it was that they were saying."
In China,(1) Han Mingdai's paper "A Word for Grammar-Translation Method"(1994) stresses the great importance of this method especially for the adult English learners although it was not popular now. (2) Zhang Zhiqing,a professor in Shanxi Normal University,stresses that GTM is applicable to the English learners in our country in "The Applicability of Grammar-Translation method in English-Teaching in China" (2000). (3) Xiao Hui ,a doctor in Nanjing University,in his book "A Critique of the Grammar-Translation Method in Foreign Language Teaching"(2004),disagrees with the elimination of the learners' mother tongue from the second language classroom. He indicates translation is an alternative that can contribute to the successful realization of teaching goals and should be used effectively to promote second language learning.
These researches,to some extent,applied GTM from positive attitude and emphases the importance of the L1 and accuracy of the grammar. These features continue to be widely used in some parts of the world today and also can be found in today's English teaching classroom in China. But,to better understanding the GTM,we should move to its disadvantages.
3. The critical views about Grammar-Translation Method
Drawbacks to the Grammar-Translation Method are obvious. Virtually no class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences,and even less time is spent on oral practice (whether productive or reproductive). And the use of the first language wastes too much valuable class time that would be better spent on the target language. This is sometimes referred to as the time on task argument. What's more,there is often little contextualization of the grammar-although this of course depends upon the passages chosen and the teacher's own skills. Moreover,culture,when discussed,is communicated through means of reading passages,but there is little direct confrontation with foreign elements. In addition,the type of error correction that this method requires can actually be harmful to the students' learning processes since students are put in a defensive learning environment where right answers are expected. Finally,it interposes an intermediate process between the concept and the way it is expressed in the foreign language,thus hindering the development of the ability to think directly in the mew language. This intermediate process with its occasional misapplication of L1 rules to the L2,is sometimes referred to as interference. Therefore,it is quite natural that there have been various criticisms of the use of GTM for the teaching of modern languages,and particularly English.
4. The practical view on the Grammar-Translation Method
Since the significance and disadvantages introduced,we have a fundamental understanding about the GTM. Now,the question is how to creatively use the GTM since it is not the "perfect method". Some suggestions are given here to modify and develop this method so as to offset the weak points and make the best use of its benefits and help students learn a second language more thoughtfully and effectively.
4.1A contextual approach to teach Grammar
The concept of contextualization should be more emphasized in grammar teaching. In a typical GT text,the grammar rules are presented with their translation equivalents,and translation exercises are prescribed. But instead of teaching grammar traditionally and drilling grammar patterns,teachers need to relate teaching grammar and pattern drills to meaning and use. In other words,language structure practice should be used in contexts that involve some basic principles of appropriateness. Grammar should be taught in a context,not rules and structures alone. Learners should be taught how to form correct structures and also their functions,as the first step towards meaningful communication.
Besides,grammar teaching needs to be integrated into the teaching of speaking,listening,writing,and reading skills. In other words,grammar should be seen as facilitating communication in all modes,no as an isolated area of study exemplified by "the grammar lesson".
Finally,teachers should not expect any immediate and direct result from grammar teaching. Some grammar features may be easy,and others not. Some learners find a rule easy,but others don't:learners differ in their language competence.
4.2Creative use of pedagogical translation
The use of GT between the L1 and SL has a high-requirement in systematic background knowledge about teachers.By means of translation,the teacher can illustrate how the same message is conveyed in two separate languages and whether different linguistic expressions are used. Firstly,teachers need to have a clear terminal objective when using translation as a teaching strategy. They have to carry out a contrastive analysis of the semantic aspects of the two languages. Another creation to the use of this method is back translation. In back translation,the L2 article is firstly translated into the L1 in small groups. And then exchange the L1 translations and retranslate them into the L2,after which both the original and the translated L2 versions are compared and discussed. The following questions are then considered:Are any important ideas lost? Does this loss affect the meaning of the text? Are words changed in the translation,and are these changes important? Do any of the sentence structure alterations affect the meaning and interpretation of the text? Are any changes to the cohesion and coherence important to the meaning? After this discussion,students decide whether the errors occurred in the L2 to L1 translation or in the reverse,and then they work together to make more appropriate changes. Through this process,the students can enhance their comprehension and mastery of both languages,and realize the excellence of the original article convincingly.
5. Summary
Most language teachers realize that there is no such thing as "the best teaching method," and therefore,few professionals in the field today persist in using only one approach or one method. On the contrary,teachers should try to be as flexible as possible in choosing the teaching techniques that will enable those most effectively to achieve their main goal to give students both grammatical accuracy and communicative proficiency in a foreign language. Translation as an alternative which can contribute to the realization of teaching goals can be used effectively to promote second language learning.
References:
[1]Austin J. D. (2003). The Grammar-Translation Method of Language Teaching (pp.131-133). Oxford :Oxford University Press.
[2]Brown,H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. NJ:Prentice Hall Regents.
[3]Clindy,C. (2000). Translation in the Classroom- a Useful Tool for SLA. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[4]Howatt,A. P. R. (1984). A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[5]Ollendorff,H. G. (1848). First adaptation of the New Method to teach English. Intended for French speakers. Paris.
[6]Rouse,W. H. D. (1969). Lucretius on the nature of things. ISBN.
[7]Smith,F. (1978). Reading. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[8]Walte,K. (1999). The Role of Translation in the EFL / ESL Classroom. London:Pitman.
[9]韩明达. (1994).语法-翻译法的研究.外语教学与研究,38(3),11-19.
[10]张志清. (2000).语法-翻译法在中国英语教学中的可行性研究.现代外语,28(4),33-34.
[11]肖辉.(2004).语法翻译教学法研究.复旦大学出版社.