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Abstract： Trademark is a sign of a certain product； the fundamental function of which is to distinguish the products of one producer from those of another. It is also “the first face” of the product which is put in front of the consumers， providing them with quite a lot of information. More and more firms have come to realize that one of their most valuable assets is the trademarks associated with their products or services， since the value of a manufacturer’s brand finally lies in the trademark of the product. Consequently， the translation of trademarks has also drawn much greater attention than ever before and has become an essential research problem in the business circle with the rapid development of economic globalization.
Keywords： trademark；translation； methods； business connotation
1 General Aspects of Trademark
1.1 The Meaning of Trademark
A trademark can be defined as “a particular name， design， etc.， which has been registered by the manufacturer and which can not be used by other manufacturers.” As for any trademark to be successful， it needs to be distinctive at first； then to be valuable and competitive， for the high degree of celebrity of the trademarks can be translated into strong competitiveness of the products， therefore， it has to be easy to recognize and memorize so as to make it popular with the target audience.
However， trademark is not a simple name nowadays； it has become an indispensable element in sales promotion and is also closely connected with our economic life. It has been around for years as a means of distinguishing the goods of one producer from those of another， which is a representation of the brand image and a promise of the products. It is a kind of intellectual property rights and an outcome of mental work. What’s more， it is also the invisible assets and tremendous wealth of an enterprise. For example， the beverage giant—Coca Cola spent a huge sum of 50 million US dollars in creating this unparalleled trademark， which has brought and is bringing to the firm returns many times as those of the past investments. Trademark creates competitive advantages for product performance， such as Kodak， Calvin Klein and Sony， which have been leaders in their product categories for decades with their strong and powerful trademarks.
1.2 The Function of Trademarks
1.2.1 Effect on Consumers
To consumers， trademarks identify the source of maker of a product， and more importantly， trademarks take on special meaning to consumers. Because of the past experiences with the product and its market program over the years， consumers learn about trademarks. They find out which trademarks satisfy their needs and which do not. As a result， trademarks provide a shorthand device or means of simplification for their product-buying decisions. Trademarks can serve as symbolic devices. They can play an especially significant role in signaling certain product features to consumers， and they can also reduce the risks in making product-buying decisions. There are many different types of risks that consumers may run into in purchasing and consuming a product： functional risk， financial risk， social risk， and time risk， etc. Although there are a number of different means by which consumers handle these risks， certainly a practical way for consumers to cope with them is to narrow their choices only to well-known trademarks， especially those trademarks with which consumers have had favorable experiences.
1.2.2 Effect on Firms
Trademarks also provide a number of functions for firms. A trademark offers the firm with legal protection for unique features or aspects of the product. Accordingly， the investment in the trademark registry can grant a product with unique associations and meanings that differentiate it from other products. Trademarks can signal a certain level of quality so that the satisfied buyers would easily choose the product again. This product loyalty provides the firm with predictability and security of demands and makes it difficult for other firms to enter the market. In this sense， trademarks can be seen as a powerful means to secure a competitive advantage of a product of high quality.
Thus， to firms， trademarks represent enormous value of legal property， capable of influencing consumers’ buying behavior， and providing the security of sustained future returns to their owners. Then， people may take an interest in finding out which trademarks are the “strongest”， that is， the most well-known or highly regarded. This can be found by simply walking into a supermarket， since the shelves for the products with popularity and celebrity always attract more consumers due to the favorable experiences of buying such products. It is also easy to identify a number of trademarks with amazing attraction， for they have been market leaders in their respective fields for decades. For example， the number one trademarks from 1925 remain on top today in some major product categories， such as Kodak cameras and film， Goodyear tires， Wrigley chewing gum， Gillette razors and blades， Coca Cola soft drinks， whose trademarks have been prosperous over the years.
2 The Translation of Trademarks
2.1 The Importance of Trademark Translation
Trademark is essential to a product； similarly， the trademark translation is also vital to an enterprise in the international business. While numerous foreign products are entering Chinese market， at the same time， more and more Chinese products are also going abroad. This requires the translation of trademarks to serve as the “envoy” communicating with both sides at home and abroad in the international business. The denomination of trademarks has its obvious features of popularity， commercialism， nationalism， and up-to-dateness. In this way， the certain cultural tradition， belief and religions， to a large extent， predetermine the psychology and activities of both manufacturers and consumers， hence， have a great impact on trademarks. It would lead to a dreadful consequence if translators only translate the trademarks literally into the written language of the importing nation， since they may come across various divergences in language， custom， education， religion， and statute between the two countries. Different from other styles of translation， such as literature， technology and news， the trademark translation attaches more importance to economic and cultural factors. Thus， the quality of trademark translation has a direct impact on the image and marketing of the product. It is requested to be in line with the quintessence of the original trademark.
2.2 Main Methods of Trademark Translation
2.2.1 Transliteration
Transliteration is translating the trademark according to its pronunciation. It is a habitual way of trademark translation， whose trademarks are commonly made up of people’s names， corporation names and other particular names. There are numerous commonly-seen trademarks by transliteration， such as Lincoln （American automobiles） “林肯”， Siemens （German appliance） “西门子”， Hilton （US Hotels） “希尔顿”， and Adidas （German sportswear） “阿迪达斯”， etc.
If the transliteration method is used appropriately， sometimes， it will label ordinary product with a vivid and distinctive trademark， afterwards it may become celebrated around and even all over the world.
2.2.2 Meaningful Homophonic Translation
It is a way of trademark translation by using some words in the target language which are chosen from words with the same or similar pronunciation of those in the source language， but the stress should be laid on choosing the words which have auspicious meanings. This method of translation pays attention to both speech sound and meaning，` while the meaning is different from the original， which is determined by creation， not running out of certain scope. Large quantities of trademark translations belong to this method. Take a world-famous trademark for instance， strictly speaking， Mercedes Benz should be translated into “本茨” according to Chinese translation conventions and regulations. While at present， it is translated into “奔驰”. There have been arguments about this name in the translation circle which highlight the continuity and unity of trademark translation rather than changing translation at random， whereas from the viewpoint of the business circle， “奔驰” obviously exceeds the former one， which has a quite similar pronunciation with Benz， moreover it is of extremely fascinating associative significance. Once this name is heard， it will strike people with the image of the imposing and luxurious cars running along the road， and will impel them to have an intention to buy it. Besides， other examples such as Coca Cola “可口可乐”， Pepsi “百事”， Carrefour “家乐福”， etc.， also select this way to translate their trademarks. On one hand， such translated trademarks maintain a very close pronunciation with the original trademarks； on the other hand， they include commendatory meanings with strong business flavor， which are capable of leaving a deep impression on the potential consumers.
2.2.3 Literal Translation
There is a portion of trademarks named with common words， whose influence of their signs and advertisements needs to be manifested by the analogical meaning and symbolic meaning of the original words in the translation. This method passes on the original language meanings， and presents the cultural connotation hidden behind the language. Being faithful to the meaning of original trademarks， such translations are limited to those trademarks with beautiful implications and elegant words in practical use. The translated trademarks in this way always express the meaning effectively， are usually easy to pronounce， and they share the same promotion function as the original trademarks. A typical example is Volkswagen， world-class German automobiles. In German， “volks” means the people， and “wagen” means automobile. Thus in Chinese， the translation is “大众汽车”. As to the original name， there is a story that few people are informed of： During the 1920s and 1930s， cars were so expensive that they only belonged to a few wealthy people. Once Hitler came to power， he declared that automobiles were to be produced for the mass population， so the brand “volkswagen” came into being. He called on people to save some money per month to set up the “automobile deposits”. Soon， the war broke out， and all the car manufacturers were busy producing machines and weapons for warfare， however， this name was still maintained after the war. The following are also the examples of this type： Bluebird “蓝鸟”， Crown “皇冠”， Shell “壳牌” and Jaguar “美洲虎”.
2.2.4 Creative Translation
The creative translation is in fact to give another name to the trademark in the target language， which sometimes shakes off the bind of the original trademark’s literal meaning， opens up the mind and recreates an amazing translated trademark.
The creative translation is not bound to the equivalence in content and form between the translation and the original trademark. The renowned trademark Dutch Lady milk is translated into “子母奶”， which is an excellent model. Equally， a series of trademarks in P&G all follow this method. Among them， Rejoice shampoo is translated into “飘柔”， which makes people imagine a girl with beautiful long hair， and Ariel washing powder is “碧浪” in Chinese， making consumers feel clean and tidy when they use this product for laundry. By giving a perfect name for the trademarks with fine meaning and stress of the product features， the marvelous effect is brought to the products’ marketing which results in the increase of company’s revenues. 3 Business Connotation of Trademark Translation
3.1 The Embodiment of the Products’ Features
There are many reasons for people to consider breaking through the domestic market and selling products across borders， such as saturation in domestic market， foreign demand， share enlargement， and increasing competition. Once one company markets abroad， even just to test the waters， the competition is quick to follow. To face this severe challenge， the translation of products’ trademarks must represent the features of the products so as to be understood and accepted by foreign consumers.
The purpose of trademark translation is to deliver to consumers of the target language the impression that the trademark leaves on the source language’s consumers. In order to convey the information properly and establish a famous brand image， the trademark must be made to conform to the original meaning， design and character， and reflect the products’ advantages in their function and performance.
The first and most successful example is American beverage “Coca Cola”. Coca and cola are two kinds of plant growing in South America and Africa respectively， but now it is translated into “可口可乐”， which makes the Chinese consumers feel sweet and joyful. This name fully embodies the features of the product.
3.2 The Conformity with the Branding Strategies
It is the time of branding marketing in present international business. Just because trademark and brand cannot survive without each other， the translation of trademarks should be in conformity with the branding strategies. Although trademark is a kind of intellectual property rights owned by the company， its survival and development will be subject to consumers’ opinion. Understanding the needs and wants of consumers and devising products and programs to satisfy them is at the heart of the successful marketing. In particular， two fundamentally important questions faced by marketers are： What do different trademarks mean to consumers？ How does consumers’ trademark knowledge affect their response to marketing activity？ These lead to the customer-based equity framework. An appropriate trademark translation will increase the positive effect on the framework.
What causes brand equity to exist？ How do marketers create it？ Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer has a high level of awareness and familiarity with the trademark concerning the brand， and holds strong favorable and unique brand associations in memory. The latter consideration is critical. For branding strategies to be successful and brand equity to be created， consumers must be convinced that there are meaningful differences among brands in the product or service category. The key to branding is that consumers must not think that all brands in the category are the same， so it is time that different trademark translations come onto the stage to give full play to themselves as an essential ingredient in the whole branding strategies. Under any circumstance， trademark is associated with brand； and trademark translation is related to trademark itself.
3.3 The Awareness of Cultural Background in Target Market
Cultural background includes language， local custom， history， education， religion， family hierarchies， and so on. In the translation of trademarks， designers must be aware of different cultural backgrounds within different target markets.
In western cultures， various trademarks are often related to the family names of the founders. This character has a lot to do with the western cultural tradition—emphasizing “individualism”， which believes that individual rights and freedom are the most important social rights.
While back in China， with a long history， the school of Confucianism is embodied in trademark designing. Thus the mainstream spirits of Chinese business culture are those of patriotism， altruism， self-cultivation， propitiousness， and so on.
This opposite difference causes marketers to adjust their trademarks to the target market by creating a good translation in line with the national cultural tradition. It is necessary to pay attention to different consuming psychologies of the potential consumers. The key is to bear in mind taboos in different cultures. For example， English men dislike elephant， but are fond of panda； Italian and Spanish people like rose rather than chrysanthemum； Belgians avoid “blue” as a taboo； Japanese taboo “green” while Indians like “green”. There is no explanation for such taboos， while they have decisive power when consumers choose the products with the translated trademarks. With sufficient awareness of different cultural background， and doing necessary research work in this field， companies will not fall into the difficulty of losing potential markets and will have a much sounder development.
Conclusion
The trademark often captures the central theme or key associations of a product in a very compact economic world. It can be an extremely effective “shorthand” means of communication， since the trademark is so closely tied to the product. At the same time， it is most difficult for marketers to subsequently change for trademarks are important part of the brand deeply rooted in consumers’ mind.
Thus， the translation of trademarks becomes a very essential communication tool to convey the information between producers and consumers in international market. With the development of world economy， there will be some new methods of trademark translation， but the main methods discussed are still practical in business life. To some extent， trademarks of products influence marketing directly， so people cannot afford to neglect the trademark designing， nor its translation.
References：
1. Curry， Jeffrey Edmund. International Marketing [M]. Shanghai： Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press， 2000.
2. Gutt， Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance [M]. Oxford： Blackwell， 1991.
3. Keller， Kevin Lane. Strategic Brand Management [M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社，1998.
4. 贺川生. 商标翻译[M]. 长沙：湖南大学出版社，1997.
5. 许金杞. 意美、音美、形美—英文商标的汉译[J]. 外语与外语教学， 2002（10）：47-51.
Keywords： trademark；translation； methods； business connotation
1 General Aspects of Trademark
1.1 The Meaning of Trademark
A trademark can be defined as “a particular name， design， etc.， which has been registered by the manufacturer and which can not be used by other manufacturers.” As for any trademark to be successful， it needs to be distinctive at first； then to be valuable and competitive， for the high degree of celebrity of the trademarks can be translated into strong competitiveness of the products， therefore， it has to be easy to recognize and memorize so as to make it popular with the target audience.
However， trademark is not a simple name nowadays； it has become an indispensable element in sales promotion and is also closely connected with our economic life. It has been around for years as a means of distinguishing the goods of one producer from those of another， which is a representation of the brand image and a promise of the products. It is a kind of intellectual property rights and an outcome of mental work. What’s more， it is also the invisible assets and tremendous wealth of an enterprise. For example， the beverage giant—Coca Cola spent a huge sum of 50 million US dollars in creating this unparalleled trademark， which has brought and is bringing to the firm returns many times as those of the past investments. Trademark creates competitive advantages for product performance， such as Kodak， Calvin Klein and Sony， which have been leaders in their product categories for decades with their strong and powerful trademarks.
1.2 The Function of Trademarks
1.2.1 Effect on Consumers
To consumers， trademarks identify the source of maker of a product， and more importantly， trademarks take on special meaning to consumers. Because of the past experiences with the product and its market program over the years， consumers learn about trademarks. They find out which trademarks satisfy their needs and which do not. As a result， trademarks provide a shorthand device or means of simplification for their product-buying decisions. Trademarks can serve as symbolic devices. They can play an especially significant role in signaling certain product features to consumers， and they can also reduce the risks in making product-buying decisions. There are many different types of risks that consumers may run into in purchasing and consuming a product： functional risk， financial risk， social risk， and time risk， etc. Although there are a number of different means by which consumers handle these risks， certainly a practical way for consumers to cope with them is to narrow their choices only to well-known trademarks， especially those trademarks with which consumers have had favorable experiences.
1.2.2 Effect on Firms
Trademarks also provide a number of functions for firms. A trademark offers the firm with legal protection for unique features or aspects of the product. Accordingly， the investment in the trademark registry can grant a product with unique associations and meanings that differentiate it from other products. Trademarks can signal a certain level of quality so that the satisfied buyers would easily choose the product again. This product loyalty provides the firm with predictability and security of demands and makes it difficult for other firms to enter the market. In this sense， trademarks can be seen as a powerful means to secure a competitive advantage of a product of high quality.
Thus， to firms， trademarks represent enormous value of legal property， capable of influencing consumers’ buying behavior， and providing the security of sustained future returns to their owners. Then， people may take an interest in finding out which trademarks are the “strongest”， that is， the most well-known or highly regarded. This can be found by simply walking into a supermarket， since the shelves for the products with popularity and celebrity always attract more consumers due to the favorable experiences of buying such products. It is also easy to identify a number of trademarks with amazing attraction， for they have been market leaders in their respective fields for decades. For example， the number one trademarks from 1925 remain on top today in some major product categories， such as Kodak cameras and film， Goodyear tires， Wrigley chewing gum， Gillette razors and blades， Coca Cola soft drinks， whose trademarks have been prosperous over the years.
2 The Translation of Trademarks
2.1 The Importance of Trademark Translation
Trademark is essential to a product； similarly， the trademark translation is also vital to an enterprise in the international business. While numerous foreign products are entering Chinese market， at the same time， more and more Chinese products are also going abroad. This requires the translation of trademarks to serve as the “envoy” communicating with both sides at home and abroad in the international business. The denomination of trademarks has its obvious features of popularity， commercialism， nationalism， and up-to-dateness. In this way， the certain cultural tradition， belief and religions， to a large extent， predetermine the psychology and activities of both manufacturers and consumers， hence， have a great impact on trademarks. It would lead to a dreadful consequence if translators only translate the trademarks literally into the written language of the importing nation， since they may come across various divergences in language， custom， education， religion， and statute between the two countries. Different from other styles of translation， such as literature， technology and news， the trademark translation attaches more importance to economic and cultural factors. Thus， the quality of trademark translation has a direct impact on the image and marketing of the product. It is requested to be in line with the quintessence of the original trademark.
2.2 Main Methods of Trademark Translation
2.2.1 Transliteration
Transliteration is translating the trademark according to its pronunciation. It is a habitual way of trademark translation， whose trademarks are commonly made up of people’s names， corporation names and other particular names. There are numerous commonly-seen trademarks by transliteration， such as Lincoln （American automobiles） “林肯”， Siemens （German appliance） “西门子”， Hilton （US Hotels） “希尔顿”， and Adidas （German sportswear） “阿迪达斯”， etc.
If the transliteration method is used appropriately， sometimes， it will label ordinary product with a vivid and distinctive trademark， afterwards it may become celebrated around and even all over the world.
2.2.2 Meaningful Homophonic Translation
It is a way of trademark translation by using some words in the target language which are chosen from words with the same or similar pronunciation of those in the source language， but the stress should be laid on choosing the words which have auspicious meanings. This method of translation pays attention to both speech sound and meaning，` while the meaning is different from the original， which is determined by creation， not running out of certain scope. Large quantities of trademark translations belong to this method. Take a world-famous trademark for instance， strictly speaking， Mercedes Benz should be translated into “本茨” according to Chinese translation conventions and regulations. While at present， it is translated into “奔驰”. There have been arguments about this name in the translation circle which highlight the continuity and unity of trademark translation rather than changing translation at random， whereas from the viewpoint of the business circle， “奔驰” obviously exceeds the former one， which has a quite similar pronunciation with Benz， moreover it is of extremely fascinating associative significance. Once this name is heard， it will strike people with the image of the imposing and luxurious cars running along the road， and will impel them to have an intention to buy it. Besides， other examples such as Coca Cola “可口可乐”， Pepsi “百事”， Carrefour “家乐福”， etc.， also select this way to translate their trademarks. On one hand， such translated trademarks maintain a very close pronunciation with the original trademarks； on the other hand， they include commendatory meanings with strong business flavor， which are capable of leaving a deep impression on the potential consumers.
2.2.3 Literal Translation
There is a portion of trademarks named with common words， whose influence of their signs and advertisements needs to be manifested by the analogical meaning and symbolic meaning of the original words in the translation. This method passes on the original language meanings， and presents the cultural connotation hidden behind the language. Being faithful to the meaning of original trademarks， such translations are limited to those trademarks with beautiful implications and elegant words in practical use. The translated trademarks in this way always express the meaning effectively， are usually easy to pronounce， and they share the same promotion function as the original trademarks. A typical example is Volkswagen， world-class German automobiles. In German， “volks” means the people， and “wagen” means automobile. Thus in Chinese， the translation is “大众汽车”. As to the original name， there is a story that few people are informed of： During the 1920s and 1930s， cars were so expensive that they only belonged to a few wealthy people. Once Hitler came to power， he declared that automobiles were to be produced for the mass population， so the brand “volkswagen” came into being. He called on people to save some money per month to set up the “automobile deposits”. Soon， the war broke out， and all the car manufacturers were busy producing machines and weapons for warfare， however， this name was still maintained after the war. The following are also the examples of this type： Bluebird “蓝鸟”， Crown “皇冠”， Shell “壳牌” and Jaguar “美洲虎”.
2.2.4 Creative Translation
The creative translation is in fact to give another name to the trademark in the target language， which sometimes shakes off the bind of the original trademark’s literal meaning， opens up the mind and recreates an amazing translated trademark.
The creative translation is not bound to the equivalence in content and form between the translation and the original trademark. The renowned trademark Dutch Lady milk is translated into “子母奶”， which is an excellent model. Equally， a series of trademarks in P&G all follow this method. Among them， Rejoice shampoo is translated into “飘柔”， which makes people imagine a girl with beautiful long hair， and Ariel washing powder is “碧浪” in Chinese， making consumers feel clean and tidy when they use this product for laundry. By giving a perfect name for the trademarks with fine meaning and stress of the product features， the marvelous effect is brought to the products’ marketing which results in the increase of company’s revenues. 3 Business Connotation of Trademark Translation
3.1 The Embodiment of the Products’ Features
There are many reasons for people to consider breaking through the domestic market and selling products across borders， such as saturation in domestic market， foreign demand， share enlargement， and increasing competition. Once one company markets abroad， even just to test the waters， the competition is quick to follow. To face this severe challenge， the translation of products’ trademarks must represent the features of the products so as to be understood and accepted by foreign consumers.
The purpose of trademark translation is to deliver to consumers of the target language the impression that the trademark leaves on the source language’s consumers. In order to convey the information properly and establish a famous brand image， the trademark must be made to conform to the original meaning， design and character， and reflect the products’ advantages in their function and performance.
The first and most successful example is American beverage “Coca Cola”. Coca and cola are two kinds of plant growing in South America and Africa respectively， but now it is translated into “可口可乐”， which makes the Chinese consumers feel sweet and joyful. This name fully embodies the features of the product.
3.2 The Conformity with the Branding Strategies
It is the time of branding marketing in present international business. Just because trademark and brand cannot survive without each other， the translation of trademarks should be in conformity with the branding strategies. Although trademark is a kind of intellectual property rights owned by the company， its survival and development will be subject to consumers’ opinion. Understanding the needs and wants of consumers and devising products and programs to satisfy them is at the heart of the successful marketing. In particular， two fundamentally important questions faced by marketers are： What do different trademarks mean to consumers？ How does consumers’ trademark knowledge affect their response to marketing activity？ These lead to the customer-based equity framework. An appropriate trademark translation will increase the positive effect on the framework.
What causes brand equity to exist？ How do marketers create it？ Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer has a high level of awareness and familiarity with the trademark concerning the brand， and holds strong favorable and unique brand associations in memory. The latter consideration is critical. For branding strategies to be successful and brand equity to be created， consumers must be convinced that there are meaningful differences among brands in the product or service category. The key to branding is that consumers must not think that all brands in the category are the same， so it is time that different trademark translations come onto the stage to give full play to themselves as an essential ingredient in the whole branding strategies. Under any circumstance， trademark is associated with brand； and trademark translation is related to trademark itself.
3.3 The Awareness of Cultural Background in Target Market
Cultural background includes language， local custom， history， education， religion， family hierarchies， and so on. In the translation of trademarks， designers must be aware of different cultural backgrounds within different target markets.
In western cultures， various trademarks are often related to the family names of the founders. This character has a lot to do with the western cultural tradition—emphasizing “individualism”， which believes that individual rights and freedom are the most important social rights.
While back in China， with a long history， the school of Confucianism is embodied in trademark designing. Thus the mainstream spirits of Chinese business culture are those of patriotism， altruism， self-cultivation， propitiousness， and so on.
This opposite difference causes marketers to adjust their trademarks to the target market by creating a good translation in line with the national cultural tradition. It is necessary to pay attention to different consuming psychologies of the potential consumers. The key is to bear in mind taboos in different cultures. For example， English men dislike elephant， but are fond of panda； Italian and Spanish people like rose rather than chrysanthemum； Belgians avoid “blue” as a taboo； Japanese taboo “green” while Indians like “green”. There is no explanation for such taboos， while they have decisive power when consumers choose the products with the translated trademarks. With sufficient awareness of different cultural background， and doing necessary research work in this field， companies will not fall into the difficulty of losing potential markets and will have a much sounder development.
Conclusion
The trademark often captures the central theme or key associations of a product in a very compact economic world. It can be an extremely effective “shorthand” means of communication， since the trademark is so closely tied to the product. At the same time， it is most difficult for marketers to subsequently change for trademarks are important part of the brand deeply rooted in consumers’ mind.
Thus， the translation of trademarks becomes a very essential communication tool to convey the information between producers and consumers in international market. With the development of world economy， there will be some new methods of trademark translation， but the main methods discussed are still practical in business life. To some extent， trademarks of products influence marketing directly， so people cannot afford to neglect the trademark designing， nor its translation.
References：
1. Curry， Jeffrey Edmund. International Marketing [M]. Shanghai： Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press， 2000.
2. Gutt， Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance [M]. Oxford： Blackwell， 1991.
3. Keller， Kevin Lane. Strategic Brand Management [M]. 北京：中国人民大学出版社，1998.
4. 贺川生. 商标翻译[M]. 长沙：湖南大学出版社，1997.
5. 许金杞. 意美、音美、形美—英文商标的汉译[J]. 外语与外语教学， 2002（10）：47-51.