论文部分内容阅读
【Abstract】Corset is a part of women costume in western society from about 16th century to 19th century. But corsets were occasionally worn by upper class female in 20th century. Corset was a symbol of decency of leisure class； however， it was unhealthy and caused many aliments. Corsets and other tight costumes used to shape body were not always popular. It was advocated only for some certain periods of time， and its impetus behind need to be analyzed.
【Key words】Corset； upper class female； body-shaping； impetus
【作者簡介】张子岳，河北农业大学外国语学院。
Elizabeth Swann， daughter of Governor Weatherby Swann， was wearing a corset in the day of Captain Norrington’s promotion ceremony. Governor Swann told her the suit was “the latest fashion of London”， but Miss Swann said， struggling to put on her new suit with the help of housemaids， “well， women in London must have learnt not to breathe. ” This is a scene of the famous series Pirates of the Caribbean which tells a story of pirates in 18th century.
18th century is a period when Britain， Spain and Holland were fighting for control of overseas colonies and the sea transportation. The governments of western maritime countries including British and France legally allowed privateers to attack vessels of other countries to weaken their rivals.
At that time upper class women like Elizabeth Swann wore this kind of “the latest fashion” corset in formal occasions. Miss Swann， in the film， was standing on a platform of fortress with the newly promoted Commodore Norrington. Her corset was so tight on her breasts so that when Norrington tried to make a proposal， she said， “I can’t breathe”， （Mr. Norrington mistook it for “I feel so nervous about your proposal”） and fell off the fortress.
I. Western Costume Traditions
Western values not doubt came from classical values， namely the classical Greek traditions. Classical Greek arts concerned with expressing external true ideals. They express in the subject of their art the ideal of reason， moderation， balance and harmony in all things. Famous examples are the classical Greece sculptures， the favorite subject of which are male nude exhibited in relaxed gestures. “Sculptors sought to achieve not realism but a standard of ideal beauty”. （Spielvogel， 2006） So in classical period of West and during the Renaissance period when people wanted “a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization” （Spielvogel， 2006），shaping women body with the costumes like corset， making their waist slimmer could not be acceptable. The differences of costumes in ancient Greece were not too much determined by people’s social status. Gender distinctions were not clearly expressed in costumes. The styles were simple and natural and decorated with beautiful and affluent smocking. Roman costume styles shared much in common with that of ancient Greece. Gender differences were not obviously reflected too. Female Roman costumes were largely mimic Greek styles， with only better colors and materials. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Medieval Europe had been shrouded in religious chaos and warfare. Strict religious control of people’s mind would not allow women from decent families to show their bodies and skins. （Chen Dongsheng， Gan Yinglian， et al， 2013）
European Catholicism had been emphasizing on marriage being a sacrament for centuries before the Renaissance. The Catholicism advocated abstinence from sex to achieve holiness. Sexual urges should be under control. （Spielvogel， 2006） Religious Reformers in 15th and 16th like Martin Luther and John Calvin strove to change the situation. They argued to eliminate the special holiness for celibacy and encouraged mutual love between man and wife. （Spielvogel， 2006） Reformer’ attempts changed the fashion of art and costume gradually. The liberty of human sexual desire reflected on the change of costume styles.
European women began wearing very tight costume like basquine and farthingale， the styles originated from Spanish court， as early as late 15th century. Women body was shaped by the two styles of costumes under human will， and the “ideal” shape of a low waist-to-hip rate began to establish during the Renaissance period. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
In 18th century， the shaping women’s body by costumes prevailed and much established. In the time when Rococo Style was popular， costume styles like French Pannier and corset were the necessities of most upper class women. The costumes “may looked glamorous， but they were the cause of great discomfort. ” “Although corsets would later be blamed for a slew of ailments such as splinters， damaged livers， and displaced ribs， they accentuated the female form. Corsets were also considered to be a status symbol··· indicated that she was a member of the leisured class. ” （Bronwyn Cosgrave， 2000）
It has been the fact that women wearing corsets at that time were mainly from rich families or of higher ranks of society. They did not attend physical works as the poor women did in countryside or as the female workers did in factories or plants when later on western society became industrialized. After the heyday of the Renaissance， Mannerism and Baroque movement came into being in the 16th century. The characters of Mannerism were to express anxiety， uncertainty， suffering and a yearning for spiritual experience. （Spielvogel， 2006） Baroque style on the other hand emphasized on intense religious feelings and strived to reflect powers and to impress people. （Spielvogel， 2006）
The story of the Caribbean Pirate series was set in the 18th when the king of Britain was George II （1727-1760）. In 18th， Baroque style still strongly affected the art and fashion of costume， and a new style named Rocco came into being.
Rococo style “stressed grace and gentle action. It rejected strict geometrical patterns and favored curves and it made much use of interlaced designs colored in gold with delicate contours and graceful curves. Highly secular， its lightness and charm spoke of pursuit of pleasure， happiness and love. （（Spielvogel， 2006）
The beauty formed by corset was extreme beauty. Women with corset were the focus of communication. Corsets made the wonderful ladies difficult to breathe， and in a state of anorexia. Usually the ladies look pale and weak， and this cause some sort of decency to the men and this agrees with the expectation of society. （Chen Dongsheng， Gan Yinglian， et al， 2013）
II. The Social Backgrounds of the Changing Styles
There is something behind the costume traditions.
“Hegel says somewhere that all great historic facts and personages recur twice. He forgot to add： ‘Once as tragedy， and again as farce. ’”（Karl Marx， 1852） “Man makes his own history， but he does not make it out of the whole cloth； He does not make it out of conditions chosen by himself， but out of such as he finds close at hand. ”（Karl Marx， 1852）
Fashion is cycling. It is foregrounding and backgrounding all the times. In Greco-Roman times， women costumes tended to be more natural and loose， and no other attachments used to shape bodies. But after the Renaissance period， especially in Baroque and Rococo period， body-shaping costumes like corsets prevailed. Practices of body-shaping foregrounded. But the practice then backgrounded when the French Revolution in the late 18th century overthrew the old feudal government， along with the old taste of female costume. Women were encouraged to wear costumes more like traditional Greek style， similar to the Chiton of Ionic. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Things that “recurred twice” were not exactly the same. The changes of the women costume reflected the changing role and status of the females. Fashions of women dressing did not plainly recur as the exact old ones， just like that the Renaissance， although it meant “rebirth” at first， was not merely a duplication of the ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Women before 20th century were confined to households. Affluent women took the role of housekeepers who supervised the servants to do the household tasks. The upper class women were free from labors； in fact their fashionable clothes made them virtually incapable of performing any physical labor. （Phyllis Tortora， Keith Eubank， 1989）
“Women from working class families did toil at a wide variety of tasks. Their garments were less hampering， more practical in form and made from less expensive fabrics. ” （Phyllis Tortora， Keith Eubank， 1989）
The materials of corset also reflect the social development of 16th to 19th century Europe.
Corsets were constructed of restricting hoops of whalebone which was an obvious sign of the then far progressed maritime technologies and maritime activities. Without the ability of going into the sea， getting whalebones in a large scale would be impossible， let alone to fit the bones into costumes of upper class women. Form 15th century to 18th century is the Age of Discovery， when intercontinental voyage was made possible with better ships and navigation technologies. Products made of whale include whale oils， candles and corsets. The corsets used whalebone stays as component. （Robert McNamara， 2017）
III. The disappearing corsets
The last days of the corset being an indispensable part of women costume may be the late 19th century and 20th century. The fashion didn’t fade in a day of course.
Industrialization reshaped the old structure of society and its unit， families. In industrialized societies， household affairs were made easy by the manufactured products. The role of women had changed that they were no longer regarded as only wife， mother and housekeepers， but also staff in workplace. It was not a good option for female employees to wear corsets at all in workplaces.
“The First World War was a most important impetus for the modernization of women costume. Women played an indispensible role in supplying the war； they walked out of households， and joined in the society. What they wore stressed more on comfort and convenience. After the war， female employees didn’t want to go back to the house affairs again. Feminist movement started trends for women to ask rights to work. ” （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Until the first half of the 19th century， corsets were not totally forsaken. “Women threw off the corsets which had confined their breasts， and abjured parasols and veils since they no longer feared air and sunshine. They shortened their skirts so that they could use their legs freely at tennis， and were no longer bashful about displaying them if they were pretty ones. ” （Stefan Zweig， 1987） Things were getting better， women more than ever before took park in outdoor activities as Stefan Zweig recalled about what was happening then in Europe. As women no longer confined themselves to households， Salons and outdoor places， watching but not participating， costumes like corsets became too uncomfortable for women. But 19th century was not the end of corsets. In the film “Titanic”， a story of 1912 maiden but catastrophic voyage， the heroine Rose also strived to put her into a suit of corset. This must be the last days when women had to put up with the comfortable costume.
References：
[1].Jackson J.Spielvogel，Western Civilization：A Brief History[M].影印版.北京：北京大學出版社，2006.1.
[2]袁仄，蒋玉秋，李柏英.外国服装史[M].重庆：西南师范大学出版社，2012.4.
[3]陈东生，甘应进.新编中外服装史[M].北京：中国轻工出版社， 2013.2.
[4]Stefan Zweig，The World of Yesterday.[M].London：Cassell Biographies，1987.
[5]Karl Marx，The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte[M].Published Online by Socialist Labor Party of America，www.slp.org. 2003，12.
[6]Bronwyn Cosgrave，The Complete History of Costume
【Key words】Corset； upper class female； body-shaping； impetus
【作者簡介】张子岳，河北农业大学外国语学院。
Elizabeth Swann， daughter of Governor Weatherby Swann， was wearing a corset in the day of Captain Norrington’s promotion ceremony. Governor Swann told her the suit was “the latest fashion of London”， but Miss Swann said， struggling to put on her new suit with the help of housemaids， “well， women in London must have learnt not to breathe. ” This is a scene of the famous series Pirates of the Caribbean which tells a story of pirates in 18th century.
18th century is a period when Britain， Spain and Holland were fighting for control of overseas colonies and the sea transportation. The governments of western maritime countries including British and France legally allowed privateers to attack vessels of other countries to weaken their rivals.
At that time upper class women like Elizabeth Swann wore this kind of “the latest fashion” corset in formal occasions. Miss Swann， in the film， was standing on a platform of fortress with the newly promoted Commodore Norrington. Her corset was so tight on her breasts so that when Norrington tried to make a proposal， she said， “I can’t breathe”， （Mr. Norrington mistook it for “I feel so nervous about your proposal”） and fell off the fortress.
I. Western Costume Traditions
Western values not doubt came from classical values， namely the classical Greek traditions. Classical Greek arts concerned with expressing external true ideals. They express in the subject of their art the ideal of reason， moderation， balance and harmony in all things. Famous examples are the classical Greece sculptures， the favorite subject of which are male nude exhibited in relaxed gestures. “Sculptors sought to achieve not realism but a standard of ideal beauty”. （Spielvogel， 2006） So in classical period of West and during the Renaissance period when people wanted “a rebirth of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization” （Spielvogel， 2006），shaping women body with the costumes like corset， making their waist slimmer could not be acceptable. The differences of costumes in ancient Greece were not too much determined by people’s social status. Gender distinctions were not clearly expressed in costumes. The styles were simple and natural and decorated with beautiful and affluent smocking. Roman costume styles shared much in common with that of ancient Greece. Gender differences were not obviously reflected too. Female Roman costumes were largely mimic Greek styles， with only better colors and materials. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Medieval Europe had been shrouded in religious chaos and warfare. Strict religious control of people’s mind would not allow women from decent families to show their bodies and skins. （Chen Dongsheng， Gan Yinglian， et al， 2013）
European Catholicism had been emphasizing on marriage being a sacrament for centuries before the Renaissance. The Catholicism advocated abstinence from sex to achieve holiness. Sexual urges should be under control. （Spielvogel， 2006） Religious Reformers in 15th and 16th like Martin Luther and John Calvin strove to change the situation. They argued to eliminate the special holiness for celibacy and encouraged mutual love between man and wife. （Spielvogel， 2006） Reformer’ attempts changed the fashion of art and costume gradually. The liberty of human sexual desire reflected on the change of costume styles.
European women began wearing very tight costume like basquine and farthingale， the styles originated from Spanish court， as early as late 15th century. Women body was shaped by the two styles of costumes under human will， and the “ideal” shape of a low waist-to-hip rate began to establish during the Renaissance period. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
In 18th century， the shaping women’s body by costumes prevailed and much established. In the time when Rococo Style was popular， costume styles like French Pannier and corset were the necessities of most upper class women. The costumes “may looked glamorous， but they were the cause of great discomfort. ” “Although corsets would later be blamed for a slew of ailments such as splinters， damaged livers， and displaced ribs， they accentuated the female form. Corsets were also considered to be a status symbol··· indicated that she was a member of the leisured class. ” （Bronwyn Cosgrave， 2000）
It has been the fact that women wearing corsets at that time were mainly from rich families or of higher ranks of society. They did not attend physical works as the poor women did in countryside or as the female workers did in factories or plants when later on western society became industrialized. After the heyday of the Renaissance， Mannerism and Baroque movement came into being in the 16th century. The characters of Mannerism were to express anxiety， uncertainty， suffering and a yearning for spiritual experience. （Spielvogel， 2006） Baroque style on the other hand emphasized on intense religious feelings and strived to reflect powers and to impress people. （Spielvogel， 2006）
The story of the Caribbean Pirate series was set in the 18th when the king of Britain was George II （1727-1760）. In 18th， Baroque style still strongly affected the art and fashion of costume， and a new style named Rocco came into being.
Rococo style “stressed grace and gentle action. It rejected strict geometrical patterns and favored curves and it made much use of interlaced designs colored in gold with delicate contours and graceful curves. Highly secular， its lightness and charm spoke of pursuit of pleasure， happiness and love. （（Spielvogel， 2006）
The beauty formed by corset was extreme beauty. Women with corset were the focus of communication. Corsets made the wonderful ladies difficult to breathe， and in a state of anorexia. Usually the ladies look pale and weak， and this cause some sort of decency to the men and this agrees with the expectation of society. （Chen Dongsheng， Gan Yinglian， et al， 2013）
II. The Social Backgrounds of the Changing Styles
There is something behind the costume traditions.
“Hegel says somewhere that all great historic facts and personages recur twice. He forgot to add： ‘Once as tragedy， and again as farce. ’”（Karl Marx， 1852） “Man makes his own history， but he does not make it out of the whole cloth； He does not make it out of conditions chosen by himself， but out of such as he finds close at hand. ”（Karl Marx， 1852）
Fashion is cycling. It is foregrounding and backgrounding all the times. In Greco-Roman times， women costumes tended to be more natural and loose， and no other attachments used to shape bodies. But after the Renaissance period， especially in Baroque and Rococo period， body-shaping costumes like corsets prevailed. Practices of body-shaping foregrounded. But the practice then backgrounded when the French Revolution in the late 18th century overthrew the old feudal government， along with the old taste of female costume. Women were encouraged to wear costumes more like traditional Greek style， similar to the Chiton of Ionic. （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Things that “recurred twice” were not exactly the same. The changes of the women costume reflected the changing role and status of the females. Fashions of women dressing did not plainly recur as the exact old ones， just like that the Renaissance， although it meant “rebirth” at first， was not merely a duplication of the ancient Greek and Roman traditions. Women before 20th century were confined to households. Affluent women took the role of housekeepers who supervised the servants to do the household tasks. The upper class women were free from labors； in fact their fashionable clothes made them virtually incapable of performing any physical labor. （Phyllis Tortora， Keith Eubank， 1989）
“Women from working class families did toil at a wide variety of tasks. Their garments were less hampering， more practical in form and made from less expensive fabrics. ” （Phyllis Tortora， Keith Eubank， 1989）
The materials of corset also reflect the social development of 16th to 19th century Europe.
Corsets were constructed of restricting hoops of whalebone which was an obvious sign of the then far progressed maritime technologies and maritime activities. Without the ability of going into the sea， getting whalebones in a large scale would be impossible， let alone to fit the bones into costumes of upper class women. Form 15th century to 18th century is the Age of Discovery， when intercontinental voyage was made possible with better ships and navigation technologies. Products made of whale include whale oils， candles and corsets. The corsets used whalebone stays as component. （Robert McNamara， 2017）
III. The disappearing corsets
The last days of the corset being an indispensable part of women costume may be the late 19th century and 20th century. The fashion didn’t fade in a day of course.
Industrialization reshaped the old structure of society and its unit， families. In industrialized societies， household affairs were made easy by the manufactured products. The role of women had changed that they were no longer regarded as only wife， mother and housekeepers， but also staff in workplace. It was not a good option for female employees to wear corsets at all in workplaces.
“The First World War was a most important impetus for the modernization of women costume. Women played an indispensible role in supplying the war； they walked out of households， and joined in the society. What they wore stressed more on comfort and convenience. After the war， female employees didn’t want to go back to the house affairs again. Feminist movement started trends for women to ask rights to work. ” （Yuan Ze， Jiang Yuqiu， et al. 2012）
Until the first half of the 19th century， corsets were not totally forsaken. “Women threw off the corsets which had confined their breasts， and abjured parasols and veils since they no longer feared air and sunshine. They shortened their skirts so that they could use their legs freely at tennis， and were no longer bashful about displaying them if they were pretty ones. ” （Stefan Zweig， 1987） Things were getting better， women more than ever before took park in outdoor activities as Stefan Zweig recalled about what was happening then in Europe. As women no longer confined themselves to households， Salons and outdoor places， watching but not participating， costumes like corsets became too uncomfortable for women. But 19th century was not the end of corsets. In the film “Titanic”， a story of 1912 maiden but catastrophic voyage， the heroine Rose also strived to put her into a suit of corset. This must be the last days when women had to put up with the comfortable costume.
References：
[1].Jackson J.Spielvogel，Western Civilization：A Brief History[M].影印版.北京：北京大學出版社，2006.1.
[2]袁仄，蒋玉秋，李柏英.外国服装史[M].重庆：西南师范大学出版社，2012.4.
[3]陈东生，甘应进.新编中外服装史[M].北京：中国轻工出版社， 2013.2.
[4]Stefan Zweig，The World of Yesterday.[M].London：Cassell Biographies，1987.
[5]Karl Marx，The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte[M].Published Online by Socialist Labor Party of America，www.slp.org. 2003，12.
[6]Bronwyn Cosgrave，The Complete History of Costume