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The landmark discoveries by Shinya Yamanaka in mice and later separately by James Thompson in humans that adult animal cells can be reprogrammed to a pluripotent state of embryonic stem (ES) cells by forced expression of just a few key transcription factors have permanently altered a long-held view about the stability of differentiated cells in developmental biology, and suggested a way of generating personalized replacement tissues from patients’ own cells for the regen-erative medical treatment. However, those initial repro-grammed cells, called induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells,were not completely identical to ES cells because of their limited ability to contribute to every type of cells in an embryo.